CFO Leadership: International & Cross-Border Finance

How does a UK CFO operate effectively when the business has international dimensions — cross-border revenue, foreign subsidiaries, global supply chains, multi-currency operations, or expansion plans into new geographies — and how has the cost of getting international finance leadership wrong increased in the post-2022 geopolitical environment?

The international finance dimension of the UK CFO role has become materially more demanding over the last five years. The relatively benign global trading environment of the 2010s — characterised by stable trade rules, predictable currency movements within reasonable bands, accessible cross-border capital flows, and limited geopolitical disruption — has been replaced by an environment of sustained fragmentation. Trade restrictions and tariff regimes are reshaping supply chains. Sanctions regimes have proliferated and tightened. Currency volatility has increased. Cross-border capital flows face increasing friction. Energy markets have decoupled regionally. Geopolitical risk that previously affected specific frontier markets now affects mainstream commercial decisions. UK CFOs leading internationally-active businesses operate in a different reality from their predecessors a decade ago.

The substantive demands on international CFOs in this environment include the conventional dimensions of cross-border finance — tax structuring, transfer pricing, foreign exchange management, foreign subsidiary oversight, international audit coordination, multi-currency reporting — combined with newer demands around geopolitical intelligence, sanctions compliance, supply chain resilience, and capital deployment decisions that balance commercial opportunity against geopolitical exposure. Strong international CFOs integrate these demands into coherent finance leadership; weaker performers handle the conventional dimensions while struggling with the newer ones.

This guide sets out what UK CFOs need for effective international and cross-border finance leadership in the current environment. Geopolitical intelligence as a CFO discipline, the cross-border tax and structuring realities, multi-currency operations and FX management, foreign subsidiary oversight, sanctions compliance, international M&A considerations, and the broader question of how UK businesses make capital deployment decisions in a fragmenting global environment.

It is written from the perspective of FD Capital’s team — a specialist finance recruitment firm placing CFOs into UK businesses since 2018, with active engagement with internationally-operating businesses across UK sectors.

Call 020 3287 9501 or email recruitment@fdcapital.co.uk to discuss CFO requirements with international finance leadership scope.

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Why Global Expansion Now Requires Geopolitical Intelligence

Geopolitical intelligence — substantive understanding of the political, regulatory, and security context of countries where the business operates or is considering operating — has become a CFO discipline rather than an external concern that finance can leave to others. The shift reflects how directly geopolitical events now affect commercial outcomes.

Specific dimensions where geopolitical intelligence shapes CFO decisions:

Market entry decisions. Decisions about where to expand internationally now require evaluation of political stability, regulatory predictability, capital control risk, sanctions exposure, and the realistic outlook for the relationship between the target country and the UK or wider European bloc. Markets that looked attractive purely on commercial grounds five years ago may carry geopolitical risk that materially changes the investment case today.

Supply chain decisions. Where to source from, how concentrated to allow supplier relationships in specific countries, what diversification investment is justified by geopolitical risk reduction. The pre-2022 default of optimising for cost has shifted to balancing cost against resilience, with substantive geopolitical input shaping the balance.

Capital deployment decisions. Whether to invest capital in fixed assets in countries with elevated geopolitical risk, how to structure investment to manage that risk (joint ventures, structured exits, political risk insurance), what hurdle rates appropriately reflect the risk profile.

Customer concentration decisions. Concentration with customers in specific countries or regions creates exposure that needs evaluation alongside conventional commercial concentration risk. Strong CFOs map customer concentration by country and assess geopolitical risk alongside credit risk.

Sanctions exposure assessment. Sanctions regimes have expanded materially since 2022. CFOs need to understand which sanctions regimes apply to their business, what compliance obligations exist, and what risks specific commercial activities create. The compliance dimension is detailed in a later section.

Currency exposure decisions. Currency volatility has increased and the relationship between specific currencies and broader political dynamics has tightened. CFOs need geopolitical input alongside conventional FX analysis to evaluate currency risk substantively.

Cross-border capital flow risk. Capital controls, restrictions on dividend repatriation, friction in cross-border payment systems. CFOs in businesses with subsidiaries in countries with control risk need to plan for the friction rather than assuming pre-2022 patterns continue.

Where this geopolitical intelligence comes from matters. Some CFOs build the capability through reading, professional networks, sector forums, and direct engagement with sources. Others rely on external advisors — political risk consultancies, specialist insurance brokers, sector-specific intelligence providers, embassy commercial sections. Most use a combination. The capability needs to exist somewhere in the CFO’s preparation for substantive international decisions.

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The UK Tax Framework for International Operations

UK businesses operating internationally face a tax framework that has evolved materially over the last decade through both UK domestic legislation and international initiatives like the OECD’s Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) project and Pillar Two minimum tax rules. Strong international CFOs understand the framework substantively rather than relying entirely on external tax advisors for guidance.

Transfer pricing. Transactions between related parties in different jurisdictions need to be priced on an arm’s length basis under both UK rules and the foreign country’s rules. Strong transfer pricing requires: documented methodologies for related-party pricing; benchmarking against comparable third-party transactions where available; periodic review as business activities evolve; consistency between UK and foreign country positions; and contemporaneous documentation supporting the chosen methodology. HMRC scrutiny of transfer pricing has tightened materially; weak documentation creates real exposure.

Permanent establishment risk. UK businesses operating in foreign jurisdictions through employees, agents, or significant presence can inadvertently create permanent establishments that trigger foreign corporation tax obligations. The criteria vary by jurisdiction and by treaty, but typically include having a fixed place of business, dependent agent activity that concludes contracts, or substantial physical presence. CFOs map exposure deliberately rather than discovering permanent establishments after they have been created.

Controlled Foreign Company (CFC) rules. UK CFC rules can apportion profits of foreign subsidiaries to UK parent companies in specific circumstances, particularly where the foreign subsidiary’s activities are designed primarily to reduce UK tax. Strong international CFOs structure foreign operations to manage CFC exposure, with substantive economic activity in foreign jurisdictions where corporate presence exists.

Pillar Two minimum tax. The OECD Pillar Two rules — implemented in the UK through the Multinational Top-up Tax — apply a 15% minimum tax to large multinational groups with global revenues above €750m. Most UK businesses below this threshold are unaffected, but groups approaching or above need to engage substantively with Pillar Two compliance and the new reporting obligations it creates.

Hybrid mismatch rules. UK hybrid mismatch rules counter tax avoidance through arrangements that exploit differences in how different countries treat instruments or entities. Most legitimate commercial structures aren’t affected, but structures involving hybrid instruments or entities need careful review.

Diverted Profits Tax (DPT). UK DPT applies a 25% rate to profits diverted from the UK through arrangements lacking economic substance. The rules add an additional layer to international tax planning beyond conventional corporation tax considerations.

Double tax treaties. The UK’s network of double tax treaties — covering most major economies — provides relief from double taxation on the same income. Strong CFOs understand the treaties applicable to their business activities and structure operations to access treaty benefits where appropriate.

Withholding tax on cross-border payments. Royalties, interest, and dividends paid cross-border often attract withholding tax in the source country. Treaty relief, properly claimed, can reduce or eliminate the withholding. CFOs ensure withholding tax is tracked, treaty relief is claimed where applicable, and any UK relief for foreign tax paid is appropriately taken.

The complexity makes external specialist tax support essential for material international operations. The CFO’s role is to engage substantively with the advisors rather than delegating responsibility entirely — understanding the issues, challenging the analysis, and making informed decisions on the structuring choices the analysis supports.

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Multi-Currency Operations and FX Management

Businesses with material foreign currency exposure need deliberate FX management rather than allowing exposure to accumulate unhedged. Strong CFOs design FX policy appropriate to the business’s specific exposure profile.

Exposure identification. The first discipline is mapping actual exposure — revenue in foreign currencies, costs in foreign currencies, foreign currency assets and liabilities on the balance sheet, future committed exposure from contracts, contingent exposure from commercial pipelines. Many businesses operate without clear visibility of total exposure; the visibility itself is part of the CFO’s contribution.

Natural hedging assessment. Where revenue and costs in the same foreign currency offset each other, the business has natural hedge against exposure in that currency. The exposure that needs active management is the net position rather than the gross. Strong analysis identifies natural offsets before designing hedging strategy.

Hedging policy. The policy decision on whether to hedge, what proportion of exposure to hedge, what time horizon to hedge over, and what instruments to use. Different businesses make different choices based on their commercial profile, the predictability of their exposures, and their tolerance for FX-driven earnings volatility. Strong CFOs document the policy and the reasoning behind it.

Hedge instrument selection. Forward contracts, options, currency swaps, money market hedges. Each has different cost, complexity, and risk-management characteristics. Most UK businesses with regular foreign currency exposure use forward contracts as the primary instrument, with options or other instruments selected for specific situations.

Hedge accounting under IFRS 9 (or FRS 102). Hedge accounting allows the business to match the timing of hedge gains/losses with the timing of the hedged item’s impact on the P&L. The accounting treatment requires specific documentation, effectiveness testing, and ongoing monitoring. CFOs ensure the accounting treatment is right rather than allowing FX-driven volatility to flow through the P&L unnecessarily.

Treasury system support. Modern treasury platforms (Kyriba, GTreasury, Coupa Treasury, ION Treasury, smaller cloud platforms for SMEs) automate exposure tracking, hedge execution, and accounting. Above a certain scale of foreign currency activity, treasury system investment justifies itself.

Banking relationships for FX. Tight FX margins matter when the business transacts substantial volumes. Strong CFOs benchmark FX margins, negotiate competitive arrangements with banks or specialist FX providers, and avoid the spread compression that comes with using whichever bank is convenient regardless of pricing.

Translation exposure on consolidation. Foreign subsidiary results translated into GBP for consolidation create translation exposure separate from transactional exposure. Most businesses don’t actively hedge translation exposure, but the CFO ensures it’s understood and that material translation effects are explained in management reporting rather than appearing as unexplained variance.

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Foreign Subsidiary Oversight

UK businesses with foreign subsidiaries face specific oversight challenges that domestic-only operations don’t. Strong international CFOs design oversight that maintains control while respecting the operational realities of subsidiaries in different jurisdictions.

Reporting consolidation. Monthly management reporting from foreign subsidiaries integrated into UK consolidated reporting on a consistent basis. Local statutory reporting in foreign jurisdictions follows local accounting standards (US GAAP in US subsidiaries, local equivalents elsewhere); group reporting requires translation to UK GAAP or IFRS. Strong CFOs design the reporting infrastructure that supports both.

Local finance leadership. Foreign subsidiaries typically have local finance leaders who report to both the local managing director and to the UK group CFO. The matrix relationship needs deliberate management — clear authority allocation, regular communication, periodic site visits, and consistent expectations across geographies.

Local statutory compliance. Each foreign subsidiary has local tax filing, statutory accounts, employment law, and regulatory obligations. The CFO ensures these are met without surprises — either through local finance leadership with clear remit or through external advisors maintaining the compliance calendar.

Intercompany transactions. Cross-border transactions between group entities require transfer pricing documentation, accurate intercompany account reconciliation, and consistent accounting treatment in both jurisdictions. Intercompany matters are a recurring source of audit findings; strong process prevents them.

Cash management and dividend policy. Cash held in foreign subsidiaries may face restrictions on repatriation (capital controls), withholding tax on dividends, or local commercial reasons for retention. Strong CFOs map cash availability across the group, plan dividend policy deliberately, and identify situations where cash is genuinely trapped before liquidity decisions need it.

Local control environment. The control environment in foreign subsidiaries needs to meet group standards while reflecting local context. Authorisation limits, segregation of duties, vendor management discipline, expense controls. Periodic internal audit visits or external reviews verify the environment is operating as designed.

Cultural and language considerations. Working effectively with foreign subsidiaries requires cultural sensitivity and sometimes language capability. Strong CFOs invest in understanding the cultural context of countries where the business operates and avoid imposing UK assumptions on operations that work differently for legitimate reasons.

Site visits and direct presence. Periodic CFO site visits to foreign subsidiaries — meeting the team, reviewing operations directly, engaging with local relationships — produce understanding that remote oversight alone doesn’t deliver. Most strong international CFOs visit each material foreign subsidiary at least annually.

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Sanctions Compliance: A Material CFO Responsibility

Sanctions compliance has become a substantial CFO responsibility for internationally-active UK businesses. The sanctions regimes — UK, EU, US (with extra-territorial application), UN, and country-specific — have proliferated and tightened materially since 2022, particularly in response to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the wider geopolitical reorganisation.

Specific dimensions of sanctions compliance:

Sanctions screening. Customers, suppliers, agents, distributors, and counterparties screened against applicable sanctions lists at onboarding and periodically thereafter. Screening tools (Refinitiv World-Check, LexisNexis Bridger Insight, Dow Jones Risk & Compliance) automate this for most businesses; the CFO ensures the screening is operating and that hits are properly investigated and resolved.

Country-specific restrictions. Specific countries face comprehensive sanctions (Iran, North Korea, Syria) or sectoral sanctions (Russia, Belarus). Doing business in or with these countries requires specialist legal advice and frequently licensing. The CFO’s role is ensuring the business doesn’t inadvertently breach these restrictions.

Sectoral sanctions. Beyond country-level sanctions, sectoral sanctions restrict specific activities — financial services with Russian counterparties, technology transfers to specific destinations, oil and gas trading with certain origins. The complexity requires substantive engagement; oversimplification produces compliance gaps.

Asset freezing. Assets of designated persons or entities must be frozen — not transferred, not made available. UK businesses holding such assets must report to the Office of Financial Sanctions Implementation (OFSI). The CFO ensures the business knows what it holds and reports correctly.

Trade controls. Beyond financial sanctions, export controls restrict specific goods, technology, and software being exported to certain destinations. UK businesses exporting goods or technology need to understand the export control regime and obtain necessary licences.

Extra-territorial application. US sanctions, in particular, can apply to non-US entities through extra-territorial reach. UK businesses with US operations, US dollar transactions, or US-origin technology face exposure to US sanctions even where they aren’t subject to UK or EU restrictions on the activity. The complexity is real and material.

Internal training and culture. Sanctions awareness across the team — sales, procurement, finance, legal — supports compliance more effectively than compliance department oversight alone. The CFO contributes to the training programme and ensures sanctions awareness is part of the operating culture.

Reporting and record-keeping. Material sanctions matters reported to OFSI as required, with records maintained showing the business’s compliance approach. Adequate records support the business if questions arise; weak records create exposure even where the underlying activity was compliant.

Sanctions enforcement has become more active. UK and US authorities have imposed material penalties on businesses for compliance failures. The CFO’s role in ensuring the compliance framework operates is one of the higher-stakes contributions in international finance leadership.

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International M&A Considerations

Cross-border M&A — UK businesses acquiring abroad, foreign acquirers buying UK businesses, or multi-jurisdictional transactions — adds substantial complexity beyond domestic UK M&A. CFOs leading or supporting international M&A engage with specific dimensions.

Tax structuring of the transaction. Cross-border M&A typically involves multiple tax jurisdictions, with the optimal structure depending on the seller’s position, the buyer’s position, the target’s local tax circumstances, and the relationship between the relevant tax regimes. Specialist international tax advice shapes deal structure materially.

Regulatory clearance in multiple jurisdictions. Larger cross-border deals typically require competition clearance in multiple jurisdictions — UK CMA, European Commission, US FTC/DOJ, and other countries’ competition authorities depending on the deal’s footprint. National security clearance regimes (UK National Security and Investment Act, US CFIUS, EU FDI screening, UK FDI Mansion House proposals) add additional layers in sensitive sectors. The clearance process can extend deal timelines materially and sometimes blocks transactions entirely.

Cross-border due diligence. Due diligence on foreign targets requires advisors with local capability — local legal counsel, local tax advisors, local commercial diligence providers, local employment specialists. Coordinating cross-border diligence across multiple advisor teams is a substantial undertaking.

Currency considerations. Deal pricing, completion mechanics, earn-out arrangements, and post-completion working capital all involve currency considerations in cross-border deals. Hedging arrangements during the period between signing and completion protect against adverse currency movement.

Post-deal integration. Integrating an acquired foreign business involves the conventional integration challenges plus international dimensions — cultural integration across geographies, system integration where local IT differs, financial reporting integration, intercompany arrangements establishment, and the practical mechanics of running a multi-country group.

Repatriation planning. Where the UK buyer expects to repatriate cash from the acquired foreign business, the structure of the acquisition affects the future repatriation efficiency. Pre-deal planning on this dimension supports better post-deal economics.

Brexit-related complications. UK businesses acquiring in EU member states (or vice versa) face complications that didn’t exist when both were in the single market. Customs implications, regulatory divergence, immigration of staff, professional qualification recognition. The complications add cost and timing to cross-border deals across the UK-EU border.

For broader transaction context see our Fractional CFO for M&A and Exit Planning.

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International Talent and People Movement

Cross-border people movement — sending UK staff to foreign locations, employing foreign staff who work in or for UK operations, hiring locally in foreign jurisdictions — creates finance considerations that domestic operations don’t.

Expatriate compensation. Staff sent abroad on assignments require compensation packages addressing the specific situation — base compensation, foreign service premiums, cost-of-living adjustments, housing allowances, schooling support for accompanying children, home leave provisions. The total package is materially higher than the equivalent UK role.

Tax equalisation. Strong expatriate programmes typically include tax equalisation — the employee pays an amount equivalent to UK tax on their normal compensation, with the company bearing any incremental tax cost from the foreign assignment. The accounting and administration of this requires specialist support.

Social security coordination. Bilateral social security agreements (between the UK and other countries) and the EU-wide framework determine where social security contributions are paid for cross-border assignments. Getting this wrong creates compliance exposure and double-payment cost.

Immigration and work permits. Post-Brexit, EU nationals working in the UK and UK nationals working in EU countries face immigration requirements that didn’t exist previously. Visa processes, work permits, sponsorship obligations. The CFO ensures immigration compliance for cross-border staff.

Local employment law. Foreign subsidiaries employ staff under local employment law, which often differs materially from UK employment protection. Notice periods, redundancy entitlements, parental leave, working time, dismissal protections. Local HR support and legal advice manage these dimensions.

Pension arrangements. Cross-border pension arrangements are complex. UK pension scheme participation may not work for expatriates; local pension schemes have different tax treatment; international pension structures exist but are specialist products. The CFO ensures pension arrangements are appropriate to each population.

Equity participation across jurisdictions. EMI options work for UK employees but not for foreign employees. Foreign employee share schemes need to comply with local rules and tax frameworks. International equity participation programmes typically require specialist design rather than extension of UK schemes.

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The Capital Deployment Question in Fragmenting Global Markets

The broader strategic question that international CFOs increasingly face is how to deploy capital in a global environment that has materially fragmented since 2022. The pre-2022 default of optimising commercial decisions on commercial grounds, with limited weight to political or geopolitical considerations, no longer fits the current reality.

Specific dimensions where capital deployment thinking has shifted:

China and the broader US-China relationship. UK businesses with substantial China exposure — supply chain, customer relationships, manufacturing operations — face material strategic decisions about that exposure. Decoupling pressure, technology transfer restrictions, consumer brand sensitivity, and the broader political relationship trajectory all affect the long-term outlook. Some businesses are reducing China exposure deliberately; some are maintaining it while diversifying; some are deepening commitment selectively. The decision framework involves substantial judgement.

Russia and Belarus. Withdrawal from Russia and Belarus has been the practical position for most Western businesses since 2022. UK businesses still navigating residual exposure face specific compliance challenges and reputational considerations.

Emerging market exposure. Emerging markets that looked attractive in the 2010s on growth grounds now require evaluation of political stability, currency convertibility risk, regulatory predictability, and the specific country’s geopolitical positioning. Some emerging markets remain attractive; others have become genuinely difficult environments for international business.

Friend-shoring and near-shoring. Supply chain decisions increasingly favour locations with stable political relationships with the UK or wider Western bloc — sometimes at higher direct cost than alternatives in less aligned countries. The economics of friend-shoring includes geopolitical risk reduction alongside commercial cost.

Capital intensity decisions. Where to invest in fixed assets, where to commit long-term capital, where to maintain optionality. Strong CFOs build geopolitical scenarios into capital deployment decisions rather than treating geopolitical risk as a tail consideration.

Currency composition. Where to hold cash, what currency composition to maintain, how to manage exposure to currencies in countries with elevated geopolitical risk. The pre-2022 default of holding wherever was tax-efficient or commercially convenient has shifted toward more deliberate currency-by-currency consideration.

The honest reality is that these capital deployment questions don’t have algorithmic answers. They require judgement informed by substantive engagement with the geopolitical environment, supported by external advisors where appropriate, and made through Board-level discussion rather than CFO-only decision. The CFO’s role is bringing the financial framing to discussions that ultimately involve broader strategic judgement.

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What Distinguishes International-Capable CFOs

Specific capabilities distinguish CFOs who deliver in international roles from those who struggle when scope extends beyond domestic UK operations.

Direct international experience. CFOs with substantial prior experience in internationally-active businesses bring pattern recognition that domestic-only career paths don’t develop. The pattern recognition matters across international tax, FX management, foreign subsidiary oversight, and cross-border M&A.

Cultural awareness and adaptability. Working effectively across cultures requires the awareness that working patterns, communication styles, decision-making approaches, and relationship expectations vary by country. CFOs who impose UK assumptions on foreign operations create friction that more culturally aware peers avoid.

Language capability. Whilst English is the default language of international business, specific language capability — particularly French, German, Spanish, or Mandarin — supports deeper engagement with operations in countries where those languages are primary. Language capability is a meaningful advantage for some international CFO roles.

Travel willingness. International CFO roles typically involve material travel — site visits to foreign subsidiaries, international Board meetings, advisor engagement across jurisdictions, transactional travel. CFOs who embrace this travel deliver differently than those who minimise it.

Network across jurisdictions. Banking relationships, audit firm contacts, tax advisor relationships, peer CFO connections across the countries where the business operates. The international network is itself a capability that supports the role.

Comfort with regulatory variety. Different countries have different financial regulation, tax regimes, employment law, and corporate governance frameworks. International CFOs need comfort engaging with this variety rather than expecting consistency across jurisdictions.

Geopolitical engagement. Genuine engagement with the geopolitical environment — through reading, professional networks, sector forums — supports the geopolitical intelligence dimension covered earlier. CFOs without this engagement increasingly struggle in international roles.

Strong external advisor coordination. International operations require multiple external advisors — UK and foreign tax, UK and foreign legal, multiple banking relationships, specialist consultancies. Strong international CFOs coordinate these advisors effectively rather than allowing fragmentation.

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How FD Capital Works on International CFO Placements

FD Capital places CFOs with international and cross-border finance experience into UK businesses. We understand that international CFO experience is specific — the gap between a CFO with direct international track record and a CFO whose career has been domestic UK is visible in international situations regardless of how strong their domestic credentials are.

Our network includes CFOs with sector-specific international experience (financial services, technology, real estate, manufacturing, professional services) and stage-specific international experience (mid-market multinationals, scale-ups expanding internationally, PE-backed portfolios with international footprint). We match candidates to the specific international context the business faces — multi-currency operations, foreign subsidiary management, international M&A, cross-border tax structuring, sanctions exposure.

Adrian personally screens candidates for senior international CFO appointments. Initial introduction is typically within 48 hours for urgent requirements, with full shortlist within eight working days for less time-pressured engagements.

Initial consultation is confidential and at no charge. Call 020 3287 9501 or email recruitment@fdcapital.co.uk to discuss CFO requirements with international scope.

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Related Reading

• CFO Strategic Leadership: The Complete UK Guide — strategic CFO contribution at scale
• Fractional FD for UK Tech Companies — tech-specific international finance including transfer pricing and cross-border sales
• CFO Value Creation in PE Portfolio Companies — PE portfolio context including international portfolio operations
• Fractional CFO for M&A and Exit Planning — cross-border M&A context
• The CFO’s Role in Fundraising & Investor Relations — international investor engagement
• CFO Cost Control & Reduction — cost discipline in international operations
• The CFO’s Guide to AI and Automation in Finance — technology supporting international operations
• CFO Leadership in Crisis and Recession — international dimension of crisis leadership
• NEDs for International Expansion — NED contribution to international operations

FD Capital Recruitment Services

• CFO Recruitment — permanent CFO search
• CFO Executive Search — retained senior search
• Finance Director Recruitment — permanent FD search
• Fractional CFO — fractional CFO recruitment
• Interim CFO — time-limited CFO cover
• Group Finance Director — Group FD for multi-entity businesses
• NED Recruitment — non-executive director recruitment

External References

• ICAEW — professional body for Chartered Accountants
• ICAEW Tax Faculty — professional resources on UK and international tax
• HMRC — UK tax framework including international rules
• OFSI — Office of Financial Sanctions Implementation — UK sanctions enforcement
• Export Control Joint Unit — UK export controls and licensing
• UK Double Tax Treaties — UK’s tax treaty network
• Companies Act 2006 — statutory framework for UK companies including those with international operations
• National Security and Investment Act 2021 — UK national security clearance for transactions

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